This paper is about the impact of the Islamic Revolution on the education system of Iran. Unlike other revolutionaries in this century which have aimed at creating societies based on guidelines articulated by the various ideologies such as nationalism and socialism, the revolutionaries in Iran are re-arranging that country's institutions,including its education system, inorder to implement the Islamic ideals and values. Through field work in Iran, interviews with appropriate persons, the discussion of major themes of the Iranian textbooks, and other relevant documents this paper tries to draw a profile of the Islamic person (Homo-Islamicus) whose creation is the aspiration of the revolutionaries. It also points out the problems which competing ideologies and politics of Iran pose for education and the Iranian revolutionaries.

Aside from the obvious changes that occur in the major political symbols like the flags and the national anthems, in all revolutions changes in the contents of the school curricula of seem to be of utmost importance to those who make the revolutions. It is not so much that the revolutionaries are hoping that the school age children will make a difference in the success of the revolution in the short run. They don't. (It is the adult population who by their support or resistance make or break a revolution.) The long run stability of a revolution, however, is achieved when the present school children as adults have internalized values of the revolution through schooling and other socializing agencies. By then presumably the "new" normative structure created by the revolutionaries will have basically replaced the old one. This is what the revolutionaries want accomplished--the creation of a new set of values, modification of others and their attendant institutions. It is as a rule a very long-term process. Apparently there has never been has never been a complete revolution when peoples' behaviors and attitudes and their institutions have been totally changed. Nor have there been revolutionaries possessing nothing but new visions for the creation of a brand new world. Nevertheless, they all try to bring about changes in the old system's values and institutions as much as possible in the shortest period of time. In this process schools are looked upon to be one of the most important vehicles in the development of these new norms and values.

Of all the major school variables the one that the states have the most control over is the textbook. It is through the textbooks that one sees the aspirations of the revolutionaries about the establishment of their ideal society expressed. This society is composed of men and women who are profiled in the pages of the textbooks as ideal citizens. It is hoped that children have, over the years, internalized the contents of the textbooks as well as other similar and reinforcing values inculcated by the other socializing agencies readily available to the revolutionary state like the news media.

This paper has two aims: to profile the ideal Islamic Person (Homo-Islamicus) in the context of the aspirations of the Iranian revolutionaries and to speculate on the degree of congruity between values taught in the schools and other government sponsored media on the one hand, and other socializing agencies of Iran on the other. It is assumed that the existence of congruities or incongruities between the socializing agencies of a society have a great deal to do with how effective the socialization processes are in the development of its citizenry.

The research is based on the discussion and the analysis of significant themes in a sample of the textbooks published in the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) during 1984 and 1985 academic years.(see appendix I). It is also based on the analysis of several specialized journals called Roshd, ( lit.growth, dealing with various disciplines like chemistry, literature, mathematics and others, see Appendix II). These journals are primarily for the teachers and students of these disciplines and others who want to contribute relevant materials for the improvement of teaching. In addition to these, some issues of the Faslnamah were also looked at in the writing of this paper. This journal is titled in English as the Quarterly Journal of Education published by The Organization of Research and Educational Planning, Ministry of Education, of IRI. All materials are in Farsi (Persian). This paper is also based on several open-ended interviews, conducted during a field trip to IRI in 1985, with the officials of the Ministry of Education as well as with teachers, former teachers, students and parents.

As in most societies the textbooks in the Iranian schools are looked upon by the regime as a major means of ushering in the ideals of the revolution to the Iranian children. The texts echo the authorities' belief that the Islamic Revolution in Iran is the answer to the unbridled secularism, corruption and oppression which troubled the Iranian society for centuries prior to the Revolution. The Revolution is the process of re-socialization of the Iranians to the Islamic ideals benchmarking, according to the present regime, a far better alternative not only to Iran's immediate past but also to capitalism and socialism as general social systems. Through the texts and other media at the disposal of the government the values desired by the revolutionaries are inculcated in the schools. These same values are also reinforced by other socializing agencies of the country. In other words, since Islam is the religion of most Iranians as well as the revolutionary program of the government, one can seldom find incongruities between the official revolutionary values of the government, which the texts and other media are asked to inculcate, and values taught by other agencies like home and the places of worship and work.

The textbooks and the government's other means of information and communication declare their hostility to any social order and ideologies which does not subscribe to the existence of a supernatural being having the attributes of Allah, the God. Because of this the government refuses tonot recognize secular parties or groups as participators in its programs. To this regime, the secular parties, groups, and individuals can not have the best interest of Islam and, indeed, of humanity as a priority. Consequently, the regime encourages the expansion and the development of religious education not only for the Muslims but also for the non-Muslim Iranians who are the followers of Judaism, Christianity, and the Zoroastrian faith. To this effect the government has invested heavily in the development of textbooks for the religious education of the followers of all faiths through a massive program of subsidized textbook production. All textbooks, including those for the religious minorities are distributed for a nominal fee through the private book vendors and bookstores of the country.

It is very difficult to assess with certainty the effect of the textbooks on children, however. There is some agreement among parents, most educators and others concerned with the education of the young that textbooks have a positive impact on children. The fact that there has not been a clear cut delineation of the role of the textbooks in the processes of cognitive and affective learning of children has not kept the textbook printing industry and the writers idle throughout the history of schooling. Many firmly believe that without textbooks there cannot be meaningful education; or at least a "good" education cannot take place in the absence of them.¹ Others have discussed the economic returns to the investment in the textbooks and have tried to argue for their development and wide distribution. Several recent studies by the World Bank illustrate the usefulness of investing in the textbooks and other variables indicative of the quality of schooling. As a result the Bank has been allocating more funds to the so-called "softwares" (matters pertaining to the quality of education like the textbooks, teachers training, etc.) of schoolingin more recent years.² This shift in the Bank's attitude has been influenced by studies which show that the school factors in the achievement of children seem to be more pronounced in the developing countries (where most of Bank's investment in education is made) than they are in the more economically developed societies of the West.³

Still, there are others who have looked at the textbooks as potential sources of political socialization,⁴ and others who have concentrated on the contents of the textbooks' appropriateness on pedagogical or socio-economic grounds. All these and numerous other writings on sundry other aspects of the textbooks testify to the importance that people attach to them. It seems that all those who have written anything about the textbooks have either empirical beliefs about their usefulness or they look at their contents as being dangerous to a government, a society, or to the children themselves. Some have advocated the substitution of formal schooling (presumably also the textbooks) by more informal, and non-formal modes of education.⁵ Some have even practiced (and still do) the burning and banning of textbooks for various political and ideological reasons.

The exact contribution of the textbooks to the development of a person or a society is unknown and their efficacy in the inculcation of matters pertaining to political socialization in children and the adults is not clear. Nor is there an agreement as to the precise interaction between the textbooks and other variables attributable to the achievement of children in schools.⁶ All of these are general methodological problems in the study of education and particularly in the study of its economics, without apparent solution with the present state of the art. It is clear, however, that other factors in conjunction with the textbooks have been able to sharpen the impact of schooling on children. Some have even argued that in the less developed countries, especially, there seems to be evidence of more consistent association between pupils achievement and the availability of the textbooks than between achievement and other variables like teacher training, teacher/pupil ratio, other facilities and teachers salaries.⁷

Whatever the exact relationship between the textbooks and other school variables, it has long been assumed that learning takes place more effectively and the retention of the materials learned will be longer if the materials learned are reinforced within the classroom as well as outside of it. The following discusses some of the major problem areas that impact on the efficacy of the textbooks.

One of the major school variables that mediate the influence of textbooks are the teachers. Teachers can decrease the impact of the message of a text drastically if they do not believe in the message or are hostile to it. However, teachers who have been sympathetic to the contents of the textbook have apparently managed to increase their effectiveness judged by the various evaluating criteria.⁸ That is apparently why the leadership in most revolutionary societies look at teachers as the critical social category in the institutionalization of the revolutions. The role of the teacher in this process has been emphasized in the utterances of modern revolutionaries from Lenin to Khomeini.⁹

It is quite clear that teachers ambivalence or hostility toward the textbooks cannot be helpful in the children's learning process. But the exact impact of the teachers' attitudes on the textbooks efficacy is also unknown at the present time. In Chile about 78% of teachers surveyed showed negative attitudes or were ambivalence toward the textbooks.¹⁰ How much does this attitude make a difference in children's achievement is not clear. The authors attributed this to the possibility that teachers did not have textbooks at the time of their training. Some writers have even argued that textbook development and distribution deserves as much care as the development of teachers.¹¹

The second important area involves the relationship of children to the texts. Aside from other factors dealing with the production of the texts and the availability of other educational facilities in school and at home, believability in the content of the textbooks by the children themselves becomes also crucial if children are able to internalize matters dealing with political socialization and other kinds of learnings. If children are hostile to the materials or ambivalent about them then the texts apparently fail to generate the results which are expected by the authors, the school officials, parents, and others.

The third area of concern is the degree with which the values inculcated at home and other socializing agencies are in conflict with those intended for inculcation by the school texts. The problem is not so much that various social agencies do their jobs with different degree of intensity. It is argued, for example, that school and home in the U.S. inculcate values that differ from each other in the manner that they are presented to the children. Values inculcated at home are thought to be more general and abstract, while these same values inculcated in school are done so with higher degrees of specificity and concreteness.¹² Apparently these are also "permanents" in socialization. If, however, the values taught in schools are not only different but in total conflict with those addressed at home (and other socializing agencies, like the places of worship and work) then it is clear that the impact of the contents of the textbooks dealing with these values are lessened greatly. The lack of reinforcement by very important actors in the children's lives such as the parents and the religious leaders of the community reduces the impact of teaching (and that of the textbooks) and sometimes forces children to compartmentalize in order to please the many significant advocates of conflicting values. This is apparently one of the major reasons that some revolutionary regimes like the USSR and China are striving to have a monopoly over the waking hours of children to diminish the impact of those agencies and agents who advocate values that are in conflict with those of the regimes. The absence of congruity between values taught at home and other socializing agencies and those taught in school has been a major area of complaint by the builders of the revolutionary societies as well as by many of the leadership of other societies where school acts as the only "modernizing" agent.¹³ Often the teacher has been given the crucial role to overcome in children the problems of values in conflict.

The fourth area concerning the efficacy of the textbooks involves the length of the time that children stay in school and the availability and profusion of superior stimuli outside the classroom and the school. Also, the less a child spends studying the texts the less impact there will be of the texts upon the child. Similarly, the existence of superior stimuli elsewhere will draw the child away from the texts and reduce the span of attention and length of materials retained.

The fifth problem concerning textbooks addresses the effectiveness of the number and the type of persons constituting the peer group who are able to reinforce positively or negatively the impact of the contents of the textbooks on children. In addition to the above it is possible to attach to the list of factors contributing or inhabiting the effectiveness of the textbooks on children all of the variables that ordinarily are associated with children's achievements in education.¹⁴

In the Islamic tradition the importance of the textbooks is clear. The texts are perceived not only as means of learning and behavioral change but the concept of the "book" itself is something sacred and good. "It is He who has sent to the illiterates, a Messenger from among their own people to recite to them His revelations and purify them. He will teach the Book to them and others who have not yet joined and He will give them wisdom."¹⁵ The idea of the written word in Islam by necessity has a great impact on the Muslims. The Qur'an testifies to the importance that the Muslims attach to books and other written words. In some Islamic countries, some Muslims make arguments in their favor by telling the opponents that what he or she is saying is "written in the book." Such statements sometimes pacifies the uninitiated and the point is scored by the person who "substantiated" his claims by the "book." It often did not matter what the book was or even if there ever was a book. It sufficed that a person was basing his argument by appealing to the "book." In this tradition textbooks are a priory good. Measuring their effectiveness and the actual contribution that they make are not even discussed by the average individual and, if ever discussed, the discussion was given secondary importance. What is of major importance is the provision of textbooks for the children. Of course, the quality of the content in terms of learning and understanding by the children, the style of writing, and the aesthetic in the production quality of the books are always of importance as much in the Islamic countries as they are elsewhere.

The Revolution in Iran, as will be seen, is very different in many respects from other revolutions in the world. There are also many factors that differentiates the IRI from the rest of the so-called Muslim World. But the IRI shares with the most of them the importance that the Iranian revolutionaries attach to the the textbooks and other aspects of the curriculum. As was seen above, there is also an Islamic tradition on the importance of books, including those used in schools that predates the Iranian revolution for centuries. The revolutionaries did not have to rely on modern day arguments for the textbooks to start their massive efforts in their printing and distribution. They simply drew on their Islamic heritage to argue for the importance of the investment in textbooks.

The Iranians are very clear about the aims of education and their expectations are very high that books like those discussed here (along with other supportive institutions that IRI is building) eventually will lead to the creation of the Islamic person. This person is defined variously by different scholars but has the following mutually inclusive attributes: God fearing (muttaqi), learned (^alim) and brave (shuja^). (These, incidentally, are also the criteria for election of a person to the leadership of the Muslim community, the Ummah). What follows are parts of prefaces to the second and third years of primary school textbooks called Farhang Islami wa Ta^limat Dini, (Islamic Culture and Religious Education) which clearly describe the aims of education in the IRI:

The purpose of this book and teaching is not to memorize and answer things correctly. The essential aim is to develop the spirit and life and to complete the lives of children. . . The aim is the internalization of correct religious beliefs...The aim is to develop from the children of today men and women who are worthy (sha'istah), committed (muta^ahid), constructive (durustkar), goodwilled (khayrkhah), kind (mihraban), highly chivalrous (balandhimmat) and God loving (khudadust). (With these qualities) and with a heart full of faith (iman) they will stand up to spread the life giving ideology (a'in hayatbakhsh) of Islam and the Islamic Revolution. Help to prosper the great Islamic country. Rush to help the oppressed and struggle against the arrogants (mustakbirin) and help to move the helpless and the weak of the world.¹⁶

In the 'preface' to the text for the third grade a very important sentence is added. It reads: "Thanks to Allah that with the help, kindness and great leadership of Imam Khomeini and the efforts of the Muslim Ummah the Islamic Revolution was successful and the Cultural Revolution started and Imam's message was received that 'training and purification is prior to education.'" ("tarbiyyat wa tazkiyyah muqaddam bar ta^lim ast.",emphasize added). This is a very important statement which constitute a major theme in the Islamic pedagogy. In Islam, training and commitment have always been prior to everything else that a person does regardless of the stages of the economic development of the society. The processes of training and purification start very early for a Muslim child.¹⁷ Tarbiyyat is more than training. It is the acquisition of desirable attitudes and characteristics in addition to what is understood in the Western pedagogy by the word "training." A similar concept to that of tazkiyyah is the concept of adab the processes by which one frees one self from the wrong and evil thoughts and actions through orderliness and discipline. ¹⁸ Ta^lim is the process by which one gets knowledge and information (they have the same root in Arabic) through some form of media like books and teachers.

All three, adab, (tazkiyyah-purification,discipline), tarbiyyah, (training,fostering,nourishing), ta^lim, (indirect learning as in through teaching, studying and getting exposed to mass media) and ma^rafah (gnostic learning, direct learning through communication with God, which is the source of all knowledges, according to the Islamic teachings) together constitute Islamic Education. In this process of education the role of the textbook and the teacher is crucial. None of the four processes can take place without the guidance from members of the family, community and the teacher (in its broadest sense to include those in the position of leading like Imam Khomeini or a murshid as in the sufi turuq, the mystical orders in Islam).

The ideal Islamic teacher as portrayed in the IRI textbooks (see below) is a combination of Dewey, Durkheim and the Classical Chinese ideal teachers.¹⁹ However, the ideal Islamic teacher is not omnicompetent like the ideal Dewey teacher and the Soviet Person.²⁰ The Muslims believe that only Allah knows everything. The ideal Islamic teacher should be morally and ethically correct for children to emulate. The ideal teacher is the ideal Muslim. He or she is to fear God the most and nothing else. In order to have this quality the teacher has to be learned. To fear only God and no one else and to be a learned person means that the teacher is also very brave. These are mutually inclusive and reinforcing traits not found in other ideal individuals like the ideal Soviet Person, Sovetskaia chelave'k.²¹ The textbooks in schools are supposed to inculcate in children not only their own sacredness but also the qualities attributable to the Islamic person, the Islamic teacher.

What follows is an analysis of some significant themes in a sample of Iranian textbooks. The first group of texts are for the Dabistan (primary education) and consist of Farsi (language), and Farhang Islami wa Ta^limat Dini (Islamic Culture and Religious Education) texts for the same age cohort. Next, the texts for religious minorities are analyzed followed by a sample from the texts for the Guidance Cycle, and finally the texts for Dabiristan (high school) students.²²

The Farsi text for the first year of primary school starts with the teaching of writing and reading of the alphabet and introduces various phonemes, the vowels and the vowel points. In page 88, (still using some of the more important vowel points to ease the correct reading of the text) children are introduced to the concept of God through very simple sentences like the following: "God has created the Sun and the Earth. God has created the Moon and the stars. God has created plants and the animals. God has created us....O, Compassionate God that created everything; We will always worship you."²³

The next topic introduced is the concept of prophethood and Muhammed as the Messenger of God and a teacher to mankind. This is followed by the concept of the Qur'an as the word of God and the Holy Book of the Muslims; followed by some words of ^Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet and the most important person after Muhammed in the shi^i (the school of thought followed by the majority of Iranians) Islam hierarchy. Then there is a rather long discussion on the importance and the place of the teacher in the Iranian society. The following is a sample:

The day when we came to school for the first time we did not know how to read or write. From the first day our very kind teacher guided us. He taught us to read and write. He taught us to keep our paper and books clean. He taught us to be kind to our friends. He taught us to keep ourselves always clean so that we do not get ill. He taught us to be respectful to our parents. He taught us to be kind to our brothers and sisters. He taught us to be friendly with others and try to help them. We are grateful to our teacher who taught us reading and writing. We are grateful to our teacher who like a kind father or mother taught us to do good things.²⁴

As can be expected, the two major themes of all Iranian texts are religion and patriotism.²⁵ But religion and patriotism cannot be separated from each other. In all of the IRI textbooks under study the theme of unity (wahdat) of citizenship, (millat) homeland, (watan) religion, (din) and government (dawlat) in Islam is emphasized through anecdotes, poetry, and Islamic events and notables.²⁶ The unity of these four concepts is fundamental to the understanding of the Islamic perception of the world. Positive activities on behalf of each and all are acts of worship of one God who is the source of all knowledges and the Creator of all beings.²⁷ "Love of one's homeland is an act of faith" is a Muslim saying. One's homeland is analogous to a bowl which contains citizenship, religion and the government. Hence, the inseparability of the religion and the government-of the "church and state" in Islam. This complex theme of unity (wahdat) is taken up again, and again in the texts. It is a theme that runs through not only these texts but constitutes the most important theme in Islamic epistemologies of sciences, the arts and the architecture. This theme is explained in the following "Iran: My Homeland," for the third graders.

Iran, My Homeland,²⁸

O, Iran, O beautiful home, I love you. I love the laughter of your children, the voices of your youth and the battle cries of your men. O, my beautiful home. Your clean earth which is red with the blood of the martyrs is sacred to me. I kiss the red tulips which have grown from the graves of the martyrs. O, Iran, my beautiful land. I look at your high mountains to remind myself of the courage and honor of your children. Your wide meadows and broad valleys are manifestations to me of your independence and freedom. The sounds of your restless rivers for me are a reminder of the cry in unison of Allahu Akbar (God is great) by those who are free. O,Iran, my lovely home. O, land of of purity and bravery. O, land of the people who love liberty. O, Country of Islam and Faith! I respect you. I will strive for your development. With great and unblemished faith I love your people. I will haste to help them and with anger and hate I will destroy your enemies.

This concept of unity is also used to teach the unity of mankind, the unity of the Islamic Ummah (the Islamic Community) and through this concept other concepts like sympathy, empathy, compassion and solidarity with the oppressed are taught through the textbooks and other media to the Iranian children. One example of this is cited here in a story whose themes of solidarity and compassion is repeated (in most texts either directly or by implications) with numerous variations:

A Teenager from Palestine,²⁹

"When I saw him he was alone,leaning against the tent stick. He was a teenager from the Palestinian people in diaspora. He had a sad face and with eyes full of anger was looking at the ground. I moved forward and sat next to him. He did not notice my getting closer as if his heart was elsewhere. I made salam (greetings) to him. He became aware of me and answered softly and returned to his deep thoughts.

A long silence followed. Finally I had to break the silence and said: brother I see that you are sad and uncomfortable. Your discomfort has made me uncomfortable also. Tell me about your secret. May be I could reduce the heavy burden of sadness that you are carrying. He turned his face toward me and said 'Have you ever heard of such a thing where a person is driven away from his home and others come and occupy their house and if the owner open his mouth in protest the occupiers reply him with bullets? Have you ever heard that refugees living in their desert tents are being massacred by machine guns?

Has it ever happened to you that with roar of the bombers the classroom fell on your head? Have you ever heard that they have flattened hospitals with the defenseless wounded inside them? Have you ever heard of a doll becoming the cause of death of a child? On our heads all kinds of bombs rain everyday. There are even bombs which look like dolls. If a child picks one of these it explodes in his hands and kills him.

My brother, if you have not heard of these or have not seen them I have seen and heard them. They have driven us Palestinians from our homes and houses and they have taken over our homes in cowardly manner. The Israeli butchers have burned even our refugee tents. They have flattened class rooms on the heads of our children and teenagers. With their savage attacks they have destroyed the hospitals. They have burned the babies with their butterfly bombs.

My brother, these are the sufferings which have pressed my heart and melt the heart of any human being who loves liberty. I want someone to fight along my side for the salvation of my homeland and the liberation of brave Muslim people. You, O, my brother, how can you help me in my efforts?

Similarly, children are asked in these textbooks to model themselves after the Prophet and his children and descendants and other Muslim and non-Muslim notables at all times.³⁰ Children are also asked to emulate scholars like Ibn Sina(Avicenna,370-428 AH/980-1037 AD)³¹ and the American inventors Wilber and Orville Wright,³² and of course the parents and the teachers.

The concept of Iran as a nation comes next. It is described as a multinational country with great many beautiful places. This is followed by a poem glorifying Islam and those who died for it in Iran during the Islamic Revolution and the expulsion of the Shah.³³

The Farsi language text for the other years are similar except that concepts become more complicated as the child grows older. Texts for the latter years discusses the world of work and the world around the children and emphasizes the importance of many days associated with peoples uprisings against the Shah and the victory of the Islamic Revolution.

The two books of Farhangi Islami wa Ta^limat Dini (Islamic Culture and Religious Teaching) for the second and third year of Dabistan (primary school) are similar in content except that the teaching of the Qur'an (in Arabic) starts in the second part of the third year book. These textbooks, as the title implies, emphasize more the ethical and the religious aspects than do the Farsi language books discussed above. By means of stories and historical events and persons the texts make the points about generosity, faithfulness, self-sacrifice and sharing in addition to the topics mentioned above in the contexts of the Farsi language texts. Most of the contents of the Farhangi Islami wa T^alimat Dini textbooks for the Muslim children of Iran are similar to those for the children of the non-Muslim religious minorities: the Jews, the Christians and the Zoroastrians.

It is not clear how many countries have sponsored textbooks for the religious minorities. Iran has created over the past few years a series of texts for the Jews, the Christians, and people following the Zoroastrian faith. These books which are titled, T^alimat Adyan Ilahi wa Akhlaq Wizha'i Aqqalliyyatha'i Mazhabi, (henceforth, TAIAWAM, Teaching of the Sacred Religions and Ethics for the Religious Minorities) like the other textbooks for the majority of Iranians are produced by the Ministry of Education after consultations, meetings, and workshops with the teachers and the religious leaders of each faith. The rationale for the production of the religious texts for the minorities was stated by a high official of the Ministry of Education in the following manner: "The major problem which this country has had, has been with those people who do not believe in anything. This has been a problem with many of the so-called Muslims as well as many among this country's religious minorities. A system of belief such as those held by the Christians, the Jews, the Muslims and the Zoroastrians gives all of us a sense of purpose and the sharing of some convictions. It is much harder for us to 'get along' with someone who is 'nothing.' The most important aim of these books is the creation in children of a system of beliefs which is based in the existence of a supreme Creator, the God."³⁴ Following are some of the topics discussed in these textbooks:

In the praise of God, how to know God through His creations, including the children themselves, the animals and the plants, God loves those who do good works and frown upon those who do evil. who is a religious person, God's prophets, and the good God.³⁵

The TAIAWAM text for the third year of primary school starts with usual praise of God and explains that no work will be without any result. The text illustrates this by using the concept of echo. The children are told that they will see the "echo" or the result of their work in the next world. The other topics covered are the reality of the Day of Judgment through a dialogue between a child and his mother and the concept of prophethood and the prophets as teachers to humanity. The text praises the prophets of God mentioned in the Qur'an like Jesus and some of those mentioned in the Old Testament.³⁶ The texts in these and other passages try to teach children the commonalties which exist between these faiths and Islam. For example, the text for the fourth year of primary school starts with Praise of God and the discussion that He is the source of all the creation. By using senses and motor functions of the body it teaches the existence of God as well as Biology.³⁷ Through several other illustrations the book attempts in teaching the child conservation through the evils of excessive exploitation of nature and the destruction of the environment. The only way to remain free is to fear only God and have confidence in yourselves, the text tells the children. One way to be free and confident is to follow the examples of the prophets.³⁸ Throughout all of the IRI textbooks, including the TAIAWAM texts under study here, the idea of the unity of God and the concept of prophethood is emphasized. The teaching of these two concepts finds not only reinforcement in other socializing agencies of the country but also (for the Muslim children of Iran) these concepts inculcate the unity of all Muslims (and by extension of all the people of the earth) and the IRI's government as the vicegerent of God on earth as the prophets were Allah's representatives.

The TAIAWAM textbook for the fifth year of the primary school discusses the sciences (^ulum) through which God can be known. It starts with the working of the human body, the greenness in the leaves and the grass; digestion, circulation,and respiratory systems; the usefulness of work, the usefulness of life, the cells, arteries and veins, they all prove the existence of God according to this text. These are all signs of God. We know the existence of God through His signs in the same manner that we know of the existence of intellect and mind through signs like writing and drawing and calculating. God is not matter. God is like mind and intellect.³⁹

The last text analyzed for the religious minorities of Iran is for the second year of the middle school or the second year of what is called in Iran the Guidance Cycle, (Dawrah'i Rahnama'ii Tahsili) for children who are ordinarily twelve years old. The first part of this book starts with the discussion of how to further know God the Creator. After the usual praise of God through very beautiful poetry, it asks the students to look at the orderly nature of things around them and then asks them to look within themselves. The text explains the concept of theology as a viable form of discourse and how to find the right path to God. Then the text goes into several discussions about the justice of the God. The second part deals with the Day of Judgment, the eternal life, and the resurrection and the assessment of one's deeds in front of God. The third part discusses the prophets, their characteristics and the criteria of prophethood, the need of humanity for prophets and the importance of God's Unity (Wahdat) and the agenda of the prophets.⁴⁰

It is very interesting to note that all three religious minorities ( the Jews, the Christians, and the Zoroastrians) use the same texts for their religious education in the IRI schools. Apparently, the topics chosen to be included in these books are those on which there are no disagreement in these religions. The topics are decided upon by the educators and the religious leadership of these minorities with consultation with the Ministry of Education. The texts for the religious education of these minorities are also in most part very similar to those used for the same purpose by the Muslim students in Iran. To be sure, there are very important differences among these religions. Surely, Islam differs fundamentally from each of the above mentioned religions about the general purpose of the Muslims' life and their mission among others. But, all four religions share values which are so general so as to constitute a common denominator for all in the mind of the children. The purpose is not to solicit conversion from one religion into the other. Rather, it is the concern with irriligiousness, which to the IRI authorities is a synonym for irresponsibility, that has been a major factor in the production of these texts for the religious minorities and the extensive coverage of religious themes in all of the IRI textbooks and other media.⁴¹

Following is the gist of the materials from the textbook Binish Islami: Nabuwwat, wa Qur'an va Mi^ad (Islamic Perception: Prophethood, the Qur'an and the Resurrection)⁴² for the second year of general secondary school. These books and some others are shared by all four divisions of the secondary education system of Iran. (See appendix III)

It is sometimes difficult for some Muslims and non-Muslims to believe that there is very little in a good Muslim's everyday behavior that is not potentially political. The Iranians believe that once an individual has realized the existence of Allah then he can be nothing else but political. Muslims are political men and women as long as there remain in the face of the earth a single person oppressed. There are great many statements in the Qur'an and Ahadith, (sing.hadith, Muhammad's sayings and tradition) on this particular topic. All one has to de is to read the Qur'an, these textbooks say, and even to listen carefully to one's own daily prayers as in the case of "A Letter from Father." (See note 25)

There are always parts in the Qur'an which declare Allah's isolation from oppression, Ummah's obligation to help the poor and the dispossessed, and to isolate itself from the mustakbirin (the arrogants) and the dhalimin, (the oppressors). All of a Muslim's activities in this area are looked upon as his or her's duty. These activities are forms of struggle (jihad) against evil.

However, this textbook declares that the best examples of this jihad (struggle) of the Muslims for the just distribution of power and wealth have been given throughout the human history by the prophets of Allah. The messages of the prophets, it says, in this and other topics, are universal. They are not particular to a specific group. When Allah commanded Musa (Moses) to go to the Fir^aun (Pharaoh), it showed the world that the duty of the Muslim is to try to correct the evil regardless of the material and the power position of the wrongdoer. The textbook quotes the following from the Qur'an: "(O, Musa) go to the Fir^aun (Pharaoh) who has rebelled. Then tell (him) do you want to be cleansed of your defects and I guide you to your Lord so you can become humbled in front of His greatness.⁴³

This is a universal message not particular to one ruler but to all rulers who are in deviate from Allah's commandments. It would also be non-Islamic if the prophets were worried only about one group. The message of the Qur'an is clear in its emphasis on people regardless of ethnicity and even religion. The textbook brings other ayat ( sing. ayah; pl. ayat, verses from the Qur'an) to document the above point. Here the operating word is annas, the people.

All of these ayat are attentive to all of the human beings and declare to all the good tidings of the Allah's rahmah (mercy) in the person of His messenger, the rasul, and also invitation to the annas, the people, to the wahdat (unity) of their creator and the fact that they all have been created from one person (Bani Adam-Adam's children). In the school of prophethood, according to this high school text, there is only one way to fight against shirk (giving Allah a partner), kufr (hiding the truth), and oppression. And that way is for all to look on how to satisfy Allah and how to be in the side of Allah. Muslims and non-Muslim suffer, according to this text whenever oppression and arrogance increase in the world.⁴⁴

The prophets were consistent (according to the series of texts titled Binish Islami for the high school students of Iran) in their jihad (struggle, striving) against oppression and arrogance. Their consistency and perseverance has often brought them allies from the very quarters with which the prophets were making jihad against. There are many examples of these occurrences in the Qur'an: the story of Mu'min al- Fir^aun⁴⁵; the story of Asiyah, Fir^aun's wife⁴⁶; the story of Suhara (the magicians) of Fir^aun.⁴⁷ These stories and great many statements in the Qur'an testify to the feasibility of creating a revolt among the oppressors' own group to fight against them and in support of justice. It is very difficult to find any statement in the Iranian textbooks that is not anchored in the Qur'an, Ahadith, other prophets' traditions and the traditions and the behaviors of the imams. These three, the Qur'an, the tradition of the prophets (including Muhammed's) and the imams constitute the sources of authority (which flows from Allah only) in the Iranian Shi^i Islamic theology. Hence, the importance of Imam Khomeini (and others in the religious leadership of Iran) as the religious and political leader of Iranians cannot be over estimated.⁴⁸

Allah's school for prophets is a far more powerful university than any that can be imagined according to this Iranian text. This school teaches men to become rebellious even against themselves. This revolution is called tawbeh or repentance. This is one of the many unique features of the school of the prophets. Neither capitalism, which preaches to man that he is the first and of the foremost importance, nor the school that advocates class struggle and violence of one group against the other have ever been able to create a revolution in men and women against themselves. Similarly, capitalism and socialism are unable to provide the mechanism through which man is able to control himself from within. To control one's self is the training (tarbiyyah,adab,tazkiyyah) that one gets in the school of the prophets. To fight against dhulm (oppression), and to seek justice are two of the many of the aims of the school of the prophets. To protect the rights of the oppressed is in its curricula. It should be pointed out that not all Muslims are oppressed and neither are all non-Muslims the oppressors. But, in general, throughout history, those who have followed the prophets have been in the majority of the oppressed, mustadh"afin, and those who have fought against the prophets have been of the groups of mustakbirin., the arrogants.

Now we know that the school of the prophets had as one of its aims to inculcate justice and invite all of humanity to this struggle for Allah's way. But does it mean that the school advocates detente between dhulm (oppression) and freedom, ignorance and knowledge, shirk (giving God partners) and wahdat (unity of God)? Not so. This Islamic school (Muslims believe that all of the prophets, some of whom are mentioned in the Old Testament and Jesus were in this school) strives for the creation of a just society composed of men and women who are veterans of revolutions against the oppressors and mustakbirin (the arrogants) and who also are veterans of revolution within themselves-the tawbah (the repentance).

So, it is a revolution for the social justice and against oppression, discrimination, racism, colonialism and imperialism on the one hand, and it is a revolution against self ignorance and waswas (mischiefs) that reside within individuals. This school is for intellectual freedom as much as it is for social justice. One without the other cannot really be achieved in a manner that satisfies the stated goals of the school of the prophets. This school is Islam which at the time that it declared the intellectual and psychological commitment of the individual (iman) to Allah, it also declared jihad (struggle) against the social injustices of the larger human community.

When the Prophet of Islam sent messages to his contemporary rulers announcing his risalat (prophethood) he was pointing to the following: "O, People of the book come toward one word and one truth which is the same for all of us (with this there is no particular favor toward us nor towards you.) and that is to worship the singular Allah and make nothing His partner." This ayah then moves from the level of the individual's invitation to tawhid (unity of God) to the level of the problem of the social tawhid when it continues: "That we erect not from among ourselves, lords and patrons other than God."⁴⁹ Only Allah is our rabb (the Lord). We should not became disaggregated from wahdat (unity) of Allah as the Lord to the social relationships where some people act like gods (arbab) and others like slaves. Let us cut all those social relationships, this textbook urges the children, which result in creating competing persons with God and organizations that rival His relationship with the people. These are revolutionary statements which this textbook and others are making for the Iranian children.

The message continues when the text again quotes from the Qur'an: "What is the matter with you? why are you not fighting for Allah's sake and for the sake of the oppressed and the men and women and children who say 'O, Allah take us out of the city of the oppressors and grant us with your mercy and kindness someone to be a leader and a helper to us.'"⁵⁰ Again, in this ayah there is a clear tahrik (incitement) to jihad (struggle) for Allah's sake and for the amelioration of the lot of the oppressed.

As the above discussion of a sample of the Iranian textbooks show there is a great amount of emphasis put on the concepts of Prophethood, teacher, walayat (governance), imamat (leadership), God's vicegerency, the Prophet's family, and the imams (the twelve rightful heirs to Prophet Muhammad according to the shi^i Muslims who constitute the majority of the population of the IRI). These concepts are very much related to each other and as presented in the textbooks there is continuity and legitimization from Allah to His representatives on earth in the persons of the prophets and the imams, including those in the political/religious leadership of Iran. The emphasis on these concepts is essential in understanding the Shi^i Muslims' world view. The emphasis of these concepts in all of the socializing agencies controlled by the government is in part, because

In the religious vocabulary of traditional Islam what men lack and most desperately need is guidance-not salvation or redemption-but guidance. There is no more basic concept in the Islamic order of things than the notion of guidance, for it is this which can supply the need that poses the fundamental dilemma. Men require to be told how to live, to be given specific directions about what is right and proper and what is wrong and detestable. If this information is supplied in a form that makes it accessible and so that men can understand it, then Muslims have every confidence in their ability to do what is asked.⁵¹

The idea of continuity and indispensability of leadership as teachers and the textbooks as forms of guidebooks for the realization of the new Islamic society then becomes clear and the investment in the production of books and teachers (which include the IRI leadership) for the guidance of the Muslims becomes logical. The idea of the teacher (leader, the Imam) is absolutely central to the concept of the guidance. For all practical purposes guidance is the process which constitutes the sum total of all the activities that fall under the rubric of Islamic Education discussed above (p. 7). Its institutionalization from the begining of Islamic history, in one form or another, inculcated in children not only their goal and their mission but also their dependency on a leader to guide them, and the inseparability of the leadership in Iran from Allah and His Way, the Shari^ah. The task of the guide is sometimes perceived differently by different Muslim scholars. Some see the guide as a teacher and others see the guide as a teacher and mediator between the individual (or the community) and God. This is clearly a very controversial topic for the Muslim scholars who on the one hand, see no need for any kind of a medium between man and his Omnipresent God, but can not deny the importance that people attach to prophets and others in position to be God's representative on earth like the imams and other saints, on the other.

These school books, along with the Friday prayers (when millions of Iranian Muslims gather to pray and listen to the sermons which are delivered by men who concomitantly are the religious and the political leaders of the country) demonstrate the religious character of the government and the strong congruity which exist between the textbooks, and the sermons of the Friday Prayers and the decrees and laws issued by the government. The support of the Iranians for the government cannot easily be separated from their support of God judged by these Friday gatherings and the contents of these textbooks. The legitimacy of the Iranian leadership which was never in question because of the regular elections and peoples support by acclamation, cannot be questioned now on religious grounds also. A Muslim who disobeys the leadership is breaking the law of the land and the law of God. Any act of disobedience is an act of sin. The Muslims are commanded to obey Allah, His Messenger and the those with authority to rule among them.⁵² Also, it is obligatory for a Muslim to overthrow the government if it is disobeying the laws of God. These relationships between the citizens and their government and between the last two and Allah are very clear in the textbooks, the Friday sermons of the rulers as well as the official religious documents of the Muslims, the Qur'an and the Ahadith, the Prophet's sayings and tradition. However, in practice, it has been much easier and more frequent to get the obedience of men to their governments than it has been to disobey governments who have been clearly rebellious to Allah.

It is very difficult to find any government enjoying this type of legitimacy and protection. Unlike most other governments the Iranian regime does not favor specific socializing agencies over others. Islam, which the regime claims to represent, permeates all of these agencies. However, school is the only socializing agency which is the most accessible to the government because of its formalness and impersonality. Consequently, the government's programs are presented in much more systematic manner in them than in places of worship, work and in the family. None of these non-governmental agencies however, inculcate values which are in conflict with those taught in schools and propagated by the print and electronic media.⁵³

The IRI, unlike most other revolutionary governments, does not feel threatened by other socializing agencies like the family, the peer groups, and places of work and worship. In Iran these are mutually reinforcing institutions. The differences among them, which the texts try to minimize, are more in the level and degree of intensity of the value inculcation rather than having conflicting values. The government however, feels threatened by groups and individuals who do not subscribe to the policies and programs of the government and the manner which these are implemented. It is clear, after years of secularisation of the Iranian society, that the number of these individuals and groups can be substantial.

This uniqueness of Iran becomes clearer when one observes China and the USSR, both of which have systematically campaigned to destroy the primary agencies (the family and the religious organizations) of socialization and diminish their roles. The major problem which the IRI seems to be having is the Iranian nationalism which the texts as well as other government machineries aim at combating. It is not only nationalism as an imported Western ideology which the IRI has been fighting since the Revolution. The idea of "Iraniness" which describes a people sandwiched between the Turkic speakers in the North and Arabic speakers in the South existed in this country centuries before there was any articulation of the modern theory of nationalism. All one has to do is to read the Shahnamah (the great Persian epic composed by Abul Qasim Firdawsi in tenth century) to realize the depth of this peoples identity with the land and the culture of the area. In this respect, (combating nationalism) the Iranian government is similar to that of the USSR. The USSR's government tries to implement "Sovietization" in the country but faces the nationalism of the Russians and other minorities. The Soviet Union has failed to eradicate these feeling of nationalism among its major ethnic groups. This resistance to the Soviet programs in part has been because the Russians see in the government's "Sovietization" program the destruction of their own culture, and the national minorities of the USSR perceive it as the Russian dominated government's ploy to "russify" their cultures.⁵⁴

The IRI tries, through the texts and other media, to inculcate Islam (which forbids nationalism of any kind) but apparently has been unable to remove this feeling of nationalism from the average Iranian and some of those in the leadership itself. This again demonstrates the strong hold that modern and ancient nationalism has on some Iranians. As long as Islam is perceived by the Iranians (and others) as a form of Iranian nationalism the Revolution will not only fail to grow beyond Iran it will also act as a divisive factor in fracturing further this multi-ethnic society. The textbooks, for example, do not address the particular needs of the Sunni Muslim citizens of Iran who constitute more than ten to twenty percent of the population. The textbooks essentially give the Shi^i Iranian version of the history of Islam. The Sunnis disagree about the facts as represented in these texts and the degree of emphasis put on various events and personalities.⁵⁵

Another major problem of IRI involves the concept of marja^. Different Shi^i Iranians who are devote Muslims have a different ayatullah (lit. the sign of God, a very important religio-political leader) as his or her marja^ (lit. a place to return to, a place to go to for spiritual guidance and prayer). Not all of them look on Imam Khomeini as their marja^. Some even have their marja^ an ayatullah who may not be even an Iranian and who may live in countries other than Iran. This Shi^i internationalism is, ironically, problematic for the IRI which asks for the loyalty of everybody including the other Shi^i Muslims and non-Shi^i Muslims. The problem becomes even more exasperating when the IRI Constitution defines on purely Shi^i and Iranian terms the character of the Islamic State. Until these problems are solved the Islamic State not only will remain porvencial but will have difficulty rooting itself thoroughly in the Iranian soil.⁵⁶

How to differentiate between what is Iranian, what is shi^i Iranian Islam and what is Islam as perceived by each of the multitudes of the Muslims with their own particular cultural reservoir and ethnic boundaries has been a monumental task not only for the revolutionaries of Iran but also for the other Muslims scholars for centuries. The clarification of the concepts and the ideals and the agreement on how these to be formulated into policies, plans and programs to be implemented for the realization of the genuine Islamic state and society will take a very long time. (Paradoxically, it is nationalism and the cultural hegemony of the West that will hasten the processes of Islamization of many of the countries in the so-called Muslim World).⁵⁷

In the short-run however, it is only the leadership who can bring the destruction upon itself by straying from the straight path, according to these textbooks. It is then when people feel that Allah has withdrawn His support from the leadership. People are asked by the texts and other media to see if the deeds of the leaders do not match their Friday sermons and their other utterances. Students are encouraged to detect the lack of congruity between the values inculcated in the textbooks and the government's actions. In the event of any inconsistency people are asked in these textbooks (as does the Qur'an) to rebel against the government and try to overthrow it.

More specifically, the following topics are emphasized in the textbooks and other socializing agents and agencies within and outside the schools in the IRI: personal virtues and attitudes, social relationships, family, peers, parents,interpersonal relationship, village life, role models, education and study, cleanliness, reward and punishment, patriotism, solidarity, self sacrifice, religion and worship.

At the present time the Iranian textbooks enjoy a great amount of support for their contents in all the socializing agencies of this Islamic community that is seldom matched in any other society. The Iranian texts simply discuss materials that for centuries have constituted the building blocks of the normative structure of Islam and the Muslim Iranians. The Islamic Revolution has removed some of the imported anomalies. These texts are not cluttered by materials which could not get reinforcement from the environment as many texts in most developing countries are characterized. There are few items, it seems, that may divert the child from becoming what is expected from him, a Muslim citizen of Iran who has the obligation to rid the world of oppression and injustice for the sake of Allah.

In the textbooks under examination never were there any mention of the pre-Islamic Iran which was admired very much in the pre-Revolution books. One cannot, of course, deny the pre-Islamic Iran; (which is dealt with in the textbooks for history) but for the present what matters to the Iranian revolutionaries and most other Iranian intellectuals is that their history is indistinguishable from the history of Islam.⁵⁸ Similarly, the West is looked at in a more mature manner in these texts, as is the USSR. Both are however, according to these textbooks, exploiters of the poor and the oppressed of the world. Children are encouraged to learn from the good aspects of other societies and not to succumb to their artificiality and the dazzle. In short, Iranian texts discourage the development of personalities which have been known in Iran as "gharbzada", those who have swallowed what comes out of the West, hook,line and sinker,so to speak. The Iranian children are taught to look at Islam as a general system which is superior to both capitalism and socialism.

Summary

Iran is a very complex society diffrentiated on political, social, economics and ethno-linguistics lines. Neither capitalism nor nationalism has been able to reduce these gaps. The Islamic Revolution aims at reducing the gaps not so much by valuing solely either equity or efficiency as methods of production and distribution of goods and services but, viewing the operationalization of justice in the land as the supreme goal of the Revolution. Toward this aim the IRI has employed all the socializing agencies at its disposal to implement Islamic ideals of centuries ago in a society which has long abandoned them, substantially, under the presssures of colonialism and imperialism from without and secularization and later the westernization of the elites from within.

It seems that the revolutionaries, so far, have been able to bring about a great amount of congruity between the values inculcated in all of the society's socializing agencies of the country, including the schools. But, the regime in Iran faces opposition to its revolutionary programs from those following other ideologies like nationalism, socialism and capitalism and the great many middle and upper calls secularized and westrenized Iranians. The leadership in the theo-democracy of Iran interprets all opposition to it by definition as heretical and has declared jihad against some of them like the Iraqi leadership and the Shi^i Iraqis in its service. The regime is also troubled by some individuals in its own leadership who have not been able to rid themselves of some non-Islamic tendencies and their jockeying for power (some times at the expence of long-range Islamic goals) has exposed them to the Iranian masses as so many run-of-the-mills politicians. In spite of all this, the future generation of Iranians are being educated to be much more Islamic in their outlook and behaviors than their fore-fathers.

Like all the children of the revolutions before them, the Iranian school children also believe that commitment is superior to competency. In the other revolutions commitment to the revolutionary ideals was only to meet the requirements imposed by men and women in the leadership of the revolution. In Iran however, such a belief is essential to ones being a good Muslim and keeping Allah satisfied. Allah's satisfaction, through guidance and education, the textbooks and other media teach, is the hallmark of of achievement in ones life.

58. Ahmad Birashk, "Guftagu: Ustad Akbar Danasirisht wa Riyaziyyat az Biruni," Kayhan Farhangi 5 (Mardadmah,1364/August,1985), 3-14.

JII-WAP Binish Islami: Khudashinasi wa Akhlaq, Sal Awwal Dabiristan (Tehran:1985/1364).

JII-WAP Binish Islami:Nabuwwat wa Qur'an, Mi^ad, Sal Dawwum Dabiristan (Tehran: 1985/1364)

JII-WAP Binish Islami: Imamat,Walayat, wa Hukumat, Ahkam, Sal Sawwum Dabiristan (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Danish ijtima^i, Sal Awwal Dabiristan (Tehran:1985/1364).

JII-WAP Farhang Islami wa ta^limat Dini, Sal Dawwum Dabistan (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Farhang Islami wa ta^limat Dini, Sal Sawwum Dabistan (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Farhang Islami va ta^limat Dini, Sal Chaharum Dabistan (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Farhang Islami va ta^limat Dini, Sal Panjum Dabistan (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Farsi, Sal Awwal Dabistan (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Farsi Sal Dawwum Dabistan (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Farsi, Sal Sawwum Dabistan (Tehran: 1985/ 1364).

JII-WAP Farsi, Sal Chaharum Dabistan (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Farsi, Sal Panjum Dabistan (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Ta^limat Adyani Ilahi wa Akhlaq Wizha'i Aqqalliyatha'i Mazhabi Sal Dawwum Dabistan (Tehran: 1984/1363).

JII-WAP Ta^limat Adyan Ilahi wa Akhlaq Wizha'i Aqqalliyatha'i Mazhabi Sal Sawwum Dabistan (Tehran: 1984/1363).

JII-WAP Ta^limat Adyan Ilahi wa Akhlaq Wizha'i Aqqalliyatha'i Mazhabi Sal Chaharum Dabistan (tehran: 1984/1363).

JII-WAP Ta^limat Adyan Ilahi wa Akhlaq Wizha'i Aqqalliyatha'i Mazhabi Sal Panjum Dabistan (Tehran: 1984/1363).

JII-WAP Ta^limat Adyan Ilahi wa Akhlaq Wizha'i Aqqalliyatha'i Mazhabi Sal Dawwum Dawra'i Rahnama'ii Tahsili (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Ta^limat Ijtima^i, Sal Dawwum Dawra'i Rahnama'ii Tahsili (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Ta^limat Ijtima^i, Sal Sawwum Dawra'i Rahnama'ii Tahsili (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Tarikh, Sal Awwal Rahnama'ii Tahsili (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Tarikh, Sal Dawwum Dawra'i Rahnama'ii Tahsili (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII_WAP Tarikh, Sal Sawwum Dawra'i Rahnama'ii Tahsili (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Tarikh ^umumi, Sal Chaharum Amuzish Mutawasati ^umumi (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Tarikh Islam, Sal Chaharum Amuzish Mutawasati ^umumi (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Tarikh Tammadun wa Farhang, Sal Dawwum Amuzish Mutawasata'i ^umumi (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Tarikh Adabiyyat Iran, Sal Dawwum Amuzish Mutawasata'i ^umumi (Tehran: 1985/1364).

JII-WAP Tarikh Adabiyyat Iran, Sal Sawwum Amuzish Mutawasata'i ^umumi (Tehran:1985/1364).

JII-WAP Tarikh Ma^asir Iran, Sal Sawwum Amuzish Mutawasata'i ^umumi (Tehran: 1985/1364).

Roshd Amuzish Adab Farsi (Farsi Literature), Vol.1, n.1, (1985/1364), pp.51.

Roshd Amuzish Fizik (Physics), Vol.1, no.1, (1985/1364), pp. 41.

Roshd Amuzish Joghrafiyya (Geography), Vol.1, no.1, (1985/1364), pp.59.

Roshd Amuzish Riyazi (Mathematics), Vol.1, no.3, (1984/1363), pp. 83.

Roshd Amuzish Riyazi (Mathematics), Vol.1, no. 4, (1984/1363), pp.83.

Roshd Amuzish Shimi (Chemistry), Vol. 1, no. 1 , (1984/1363), pp.65.

Roshd Amuzish Shimi (Chemistry), Vol. 1, no. 2, (1985/1364), pp.81.

Roshd Amuzish Zaban (Language), Vol. 1, no. 2, (1985/1364), pp.41.

Roshd Amuzish Zaban (Language), Vol. 1, no. 1, (1984/1363), pp.34.

Roshd Amuzish Zaminshanasi (Geology), Vol. 1, no.1, (1985/1364), pp.51.

Roshd Amuzish Zaminshanasi (Geology), Vol. 1, no.2, (1985/1364), pp.65.

Roshd Jawan (Youth), Vol. 1, no. 1, (1984-85/1363-65), pp.51.

Roshd Jawan (Youth), Vol. 1, no. 2, (1984-85/1363-64), pp.51.

Roshd Jawan (Youth), Vol. 1, no. 3, (1984-85/1363-64), pp.51.

Roshd Jawan (Youth), Vol. 1, no. 4, (1984-85/1363-64), pp.51.

Roshd Jawan (Youth), Vol. 1, no. 5, (1984-85/1363-63), pp.51.

Roshd Jawan (Youth), Vol. 1, no. 6, (1984-85/1363-64), pp.51.

Education in the Islamic Republic of Iran is compulsory. Article 30 of the Constitution guarantees to all Iranians education up to the secondary level. Unless otherwise indicated what follows is based on the Islamic Republic of Iran, Ministry of Education, Organization of Research and Planning, Educational System of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Tehran: 1984.

The primary education cycle (Dabistan) enrolls ages 6-10 years old in grades 1-5. The numbers of hours devoted to study is 24 hours per week for the children enrolled in grades one and two and 28 hours for those in grades 3-5. Subject matters studied are the following: The Qur'an [starts in the third grade], religion and ethics [starts in the second grade], reading comprehension and Persian grammar, Persian dictation [this and the next two subjects start in the third grade] Persian composition, social studies, natural science and hygiene, arithmetic and geometry, art, calligraphy [start in the third grade] and sports.

The aims of the primary education is stated in the following terms:

1. The creation of favorable atmosphere for the purification and moral superiority of students.
2. Fostering of students' talents and development of their creative abilities.
3. Development of students' physical strength.
4. Creation of major reading,writing,and calculating skills, and training of students in proper social behavior.
5. Instruction in individual hygiene so that it will be observed at home as well as in public society.

The Guidance Cycle (Dawra'i Rahnama'ii Tahsili) for children ages 11-13 (grades 6-8) has the following aims:

1. Development of students' moral and intellectual abilities.
2. Increasing students' experience and general knowledge.
3. Helping students to continue the habits of discipline and scientific imagination which have been started in elementary school.
4. Distinguishing of individual preferences and talents in students so that they may be directed towards suitable studies and professions.

Thirty six hours per week is devoted to the study of the following subjects:

The Qur'an, religion and ethics, Arabic language, social studies, history and geography, Persian language and literature, foreign language, mathematics, experimental sciences, art, vocation and technical studies, and sports.

General Secondary Education cycle (Dabiristan) is also called in the above mentioned publication Secondary Theoretical and Academic Secondary Education. It is distinguished by these names and of course the emphasis is on the subject matters from the more vocational secondary schools which fall under the rubric of Secondary Technical and Vocational Branch. The General secondary schools include grades 9-12 and enroll normally the age cohort 14-17 years. There are four divisions in this level. In all of these divisions the first and the second year students spend one day a week working in some appropriate jobs. As each of the divisions' name implies, the emphasis is on those particular subject matters. Since many subjects are common to all divisions they share the same text books on these subjects. Not all subjects listed are taken by a student in a particular year. Usually between 10 and 12 subjects are taken a year by students in a particular grade. In Iran students go to school Saturday through Thursday.

1. Division of Mathematics and Physics involves 32 hours per week instruction for the first, and second students and 36 hours per week for the third and fourth year students. The subject matters studied are: religion and ethics, Arabic language, social studies, Persian language and literature, Persian composition, foreign language, algebra, geometry, modern mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and hygiene, lab work, sports, geography, history, trigonometry, and mechanics.

2. The Experimental Sciences Division also involves the same amount of instructional hours as those described above and allocated to the following subjects: religion and ethics, Arabic language, social sciences, Persian language and literature, Persian composition, foreign language, algebra, geometry, modern mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and hygiene, lab work, sports, geography, history, geology and mathematics.

The distribution of hours of instruction in this division is the same as that of the above.

3. The Division of Literature and Culture involves teaching of the following subjects: religion and ethics, Arabic language, social sciences, geography, Persian language and literature, Persian composition, foreign language, mathematics, experimental sciences, economy, sports, sociology, history, Persian language grammar, history of literature, statistics, psychology, logic, and philosophy. The number of hours allocated for instruction per week in this division are: first year [31], second year [31], third year [34], and fourth year [35].

4. The Socio-Economic Division includes the following subjects: religion and ethics, Arabic language, social sciences, geography, history, Persian language and literature, foreign language, mathematics, experimental sciences, economics, sports, Persian composition, statistics, psychology, commercial affairs, sociology, economic development, Islamic economy, philosophy, and logic. The total number of hours devoted to some of these subjects per week are 31 for the first and second years and 32 and 35 hours for the third and fourth years respectively.