2. B.F. Bell, "A Constructivist View of Learning and the Draft Form 1-5 Science Syllabus," SAME Papers (1991), 154-80.

3. Y. Pépin, "Practical Knowledge and School Knowledge: A Constructivist Representation of Education," in Constructivism and Education, ed. M. Larochelle, N. Bednarz, and James Garrision, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 173.

4. M.L. Bentley, "Constructivism as a Referent for Reforming Science Education," in Larochelle et al., Constructivism and Education, 244.

5. Ibid., 243

6. Pépin, "Practical Knowledge," 174.

7. K. Tobin, "Constructivist Perspectives on Research in Science Education," paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, 1991, 1.

8. Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Essential Tension: Tradition and Innovation in Scientific Research," The Third University of Utah Research Conference on the Identification of Scientific Talent (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press), reprinted in Thomas S. Kuhn, The Essential Tension (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959), 225-39.

9. R.H. Yeany, "A Unifying Theme in Science Education?" NARST News 33 no. 2, 1-3 (1991): 1.

10. K. Tobin, ed., The Practice of Constructivism in Science and Mathematics Education (Washington D.C.: AAAS Press, 1993), ix.

11. N. Ellerton and M.A. Clements, Mathematics in Language: A Review of Language Factors in Mathematics Learning (Geelong: Deakin University Press, 1991), 58.

12. P. Carmichael et al., Research on Students' Conceptions in Science: A Bibliography (Leeds: Children"s Learning in Science Project, University of Leeds, 1990).

13. H. Pfundt and R. Duit, Bibliography of Students' Alternative Frameworks and Science Education, 4th ed.(Kiel: Institute for Science Education, University of Kiel, 1994).

14. H. Helm and Joseph D. Novak, eds., Proceedings of the International Seminar on Misconceptions in Science and Mathematics (Ithaca: Education Department, Cornell University, 1983); Joseph D. Novak, Misconceptions and Educational Strategies in Science and Mathematics, 3 vols. (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1987); and Joseph D. Novak and R. Abrams, eds., Proceedings of the Third International Seminar on Misconceptions and Educational Strategies in Science and Mathematics, 1-(4 August 1993) <http://www2.ucsc.edu/mlrg>

15. The following are some of the perhaps better known and more cited: Tobin, The Practice of Constructivism in Science and Mathematics Education; Ernst von Glasersfeld, ed., Radical Constructivism in Mathematics Education (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1991); Catherine T. Fosnot, Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives, and Practice (New York: Teachers College Press, 1996); Paul Ernest, ed., Constructing Mathematical Knowledge: Epistemology and Mathematics Education (London: Falmer Press, 1994); Paul Ernest, Social Constructivism as a Philosophy of Mathematics (Albany: SUNY Press, 1998); L. Steffe, ed., Epistemological Foundations of Mathematical Experience (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1991); L. Steffe, ed., Constructivism in Teacher Education (Hillsdale N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1994); L. Steffe and J. Gale, eds., Constructivism in Education (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1995); P.J. Fensham, R. Gunstone and R. White, eds., The Content of Science: A Constructivist Approach to its Teaching and Learning (London: Falmer Press, 1994); R. Davis, C. Maher, and Nel Noddings, eds., Constructivist Views on the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics (Reston, Va.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1990); J.J. Mintzes, J.H. Wandersee and Joseph D. Novak, eds., Teaching Science for Understanding: A Human Constructivist View (San Diego: Academic Press, 1998); and M. Larochelle, N. Bednarz, and James Garrison, eds., Constructivism and Education (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).

16. Fosnot, Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives, and Practice, x. Fosnot also observes there that: "In literacy, much in-service work is going on under the rubic of whole language/writing process. The psychological theory behind all of these reforms is constructivism."

17. Gerald Holton has documented efforts made to counteract constructivist interpretations of the history and philosophy of science in the Standards. See G. Holton, "Science Education and the Sense of Self," in The Flight from Science and Reason, ed. P.R. Gross, N. Levitt, and M.W. Lewis (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1996), 551-60.

18. For contributions to the "Science Wars" see: J. Passmore, Science and Its Critics (Rutgers N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1978); G. Holton, Science and Anti-Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); P.R. Gross and N. Levitt, Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels with Science, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,1994); A. Ross, ed., Science Wars (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Gross, Levitt, and . Lewis, The Flight from Science and Reason; A. Sokal and J. Bricmont, Intellectual Impostures (London: Profile Books, 1998); and N. Koertge, ed., A House Built on Sand: What's Wrong with the Cultural Studies Account of Science (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).

19. A.J. Rodriguez, "The Dangerous Discourse of Invisibility: A Critique of the National Research Council's National Science Education Standards," Journal of Research in Science Teaching 34, no. 1 (1997): 30.

20. Matthews, Challenging New Zealand Science Education.

21. P.J. Fensham, "Science and Technology," in Handbook of Research on Curriculum, ed. P.W. Jackson (New York: Macmillan, 1992), 801.

22. J. J. Mintzer and J. H. Wandersee, eds., Teaching Science for Understanding: A Human Constructivist View (San Diego: Academic Press, 1998), 30.

23. M. Larochelle and N. Bednaz, "Constructivism and Education Beyond Epistemological Correctness," in Larochelle et al., Constructivism and Education, 20.

24. Ernst von Glaserfield, "Cognition, Construction of Knowledge, and Teaching," Synthese 80, no. 1 (1989): 121-40.

25. J. Kilpatrick, "What Constructivisim Might Be in Mathematics Education," in Psychology of Mathematics Education, Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference, ed. J.C. Bergeror, N. Herscovics, and C. Keiron, Montreal, 1987, 4.

26. On the relationship between constructivism and classic empiricism, see Matthews, "Old Wine in New Bottles" and W.A. Suchting, "Constructivism Deconstructed," Science and Education 1, no. 3 (1992): 223-54.

27. A. Bettencourt, "The Construction of Knowledge: A Radical Constructivist View," in Tobin, The Practice of Constructivism in Science Education, 39-50.

28. A.J. Rodriguez, "Strategies for Counterresistance: Toward Sociotransformative Constructivism and Learning to Teach Science for Diversity and for Understanding," Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35, no. 6 (1998): 589-622.

29. J. Confrey, "What Constructivism Implies for Teaching," in Davis, Maher, and Noddings, Constructivist Views on the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics, 107-24.

30. Scheffler's paper "Philosophy and the Curriculum," originally presented at the State University of New York at Brockport in 1970, was revised for presentation at a conference on the philosophy of education sponsored by the Council for Philosophical Studies in 1971. It was published in his collection titled Reason and Teaching in 1973. The paper has been republished, with an "Afterthought," in the journal Science and Education 1, no. 4 (1992), a journal devoted to the contribution of history, philosophy, and sociology of science to science education. The paper is discussed in Michael R. Matthews, "Israel Scheffler on the Role of History and Philosophy of Science in Science Teacher Education," Studies in Philosophy and Education 16, nos. 1-2 (1997): 159-73.

31. Scheffler "Philosophy and the Curriculum," 1973, 40.

32. Paul Ernest, The Philosophy of Mathematics Education (London: Falmer Press,1991); Paul Ernest, "The Nature of Mathematics: Towards a Social Constructivist Account," Science and Education 1, no. 1 (1992): 89-100; and Ernest, Social Constructivism as a Philosophy of Mathematics.

33. Ernest, "Nature of Mathematics," 93.

34. Ibid., 91.

35. See P. Beckmann, The History of p (pi) (New York: St Martin's Press, 1971).

36. Ernest, "Nature of Mathematics," 93.

37. Ibid.

38. Ernest, The Philosophy of Mathematics Education, 45, 42, 53, 55.

39. Newton was 55 years of age and managing the English Mint when he received the problem from Bernoulli in 1697. His niece, Catherine Conduitt, wrote that: "Sir I.N. was in the midst of the hurry of the great recoinage [when he received the problem] and did not come home till four from the Tower very much tired, but did not sleep till he had solved it, which was by four in the morning." Quoted in W. Dunham, Journey through Genius: The Great Theorems of Mathematics (London: Penguin, 1990), 201.

40. D.M. Watts, "Constructivism, Re-constructivism, and Task-orientated Problem-solving," in The Content of Science: A Constructivist Approach to its Teaching and Learning, ed. P. Fensham, R. Gunstone, and R. White (London: Falmer Press, 1994), 52.

41. M.D. Hardy and P.C. Taylor, " Von Glasersfeld"s Radical Constructivism: A Critical Review," Science and Education 6, nos. 1-2 (1997): 148.

42. Ernest, The Philosophy of Mathematics Education, 264.

43. On this, see Matthews, Science Teaching, chap. 9 and Harvey Siegel, "Science Education: Multicultural and Universal," Interchange 28, nos. 2-3 (1997): 97-108.

44. On these matters, see M. Nanda, "The Epistemic Charity of the Social Constructivist Critics of Science and Why the Third World Should Refuse the Offer," in Koertge, A House Built on Sand: Exposing Postmodernist Myths About Science (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 286-311.

45. See contributors to Matthews, Constructivism and Science Education.